Table 1 Characteristics of included studies in the meta-analysis

Lee et al. 2007 [52]

Germany

Parallel, R, PC, DB

Patients with mild HTN

♂/♀

25

25

12

55.3 ± 10.4

47.8 ± 11.6

28.5 ± 4.2

27.2 ± 4

Milk

3.38

Skim milk without whey

Keogh & Clifton. 2008 [53]

Australia

Parallel, R, PC, DB

Individuals with overweight and obesity

♂/♀

34

38

48

49.6 ± 12.3

50.3 ± 12.4

34.4 ± 3.7

34.4 ± 3.7

Whey

15

Skim milk powder

Claessens et al. 2009 (a) [54]

Netherlands

Parallel, R, PC

Individuals with overweight and obesity

♂/♀

14

16

12

45.4 ± 8.2

46 ± 8.8

32.9 ± 6

32.4 ± 4.8

Casein

50

Maltodextrin

Claessens et al. 2009 (b) [54]

Netherlands

Parallel, R, PC

Individuals with overweight and obesity

♂/♀

18

16

12

44.9 ± 8.5

46 ± 8.8

33.4 ± 4

32.4 ± 4.8

Whey

50

Maltodextrin

Silva et al. 2010 [55]

Brazil

Parallel, R, CO, DB

Patients with ALS

♂/♀

8

8

16

53

53

21.7 ± 1.1

22.9 ± 1.1

Whey

22

Maltodextrin

Pal et al. 2010 (a) [86]

Australia

Crossover, R, CO, SB

Post-menopausal women with overweight

♀

20

20

3

 < 66

 < 66

25–40

25–40

Whey

45

Glucose

Pal et al. 2010 (b) [86]

Australia

Crossover, R, CO, SB

Post-menopausal women with overweight

♀

20

20

3

 < 66

 < 66

25–40

25–40

Casein

45

Glucose

Pal et al. 2010 (a) [56]

Australia

Parallel, R, CO, SB

Individuals with overweight and obesity

♂/♀

25

25

12

18–65

18–65

32 ± 4

30.6 ± 4.5

Whey

54

Glucose

Pal et al. 2010 (b) [56]

Australia

Parallel, R, CO, SB

Individuals with overweight and obesity

♂/♀

20

25

12

18–65

18–65

31.3 ± 4.5

30.6 ± 4.5

Casein

54

Glucose

Takahira et al. 2011 [57]

Japan

Parallel, R, PC, DB

Individuals with visceral fat obesity

♂/♀

23

21

32

54.4 ± 13

56.8 ± 12.2

29.3 ± 3.8

29 ± 4.5

Milk

9

Soy protein

Gouni-Berthold et al. 2012 [58]

Germany

Parallel, R, PC, DB

Patients with metabolic syndrome

♂/♀

83

88

12

52.9 ± 10.3

53.9 ± 9.5

30.8 ± 4.2

31.3 ± 4

Whey

15

Yogurts

Hambre et al. 2012 [59]

Sweden

Parallel, R, CO

Healthy males

♂

12

12

12

24.2 ± 3.7

23.2 ± 3.4

22.6 ± 2.5

22.3 ± 1.9

Whey

33

A meal of fast food

Sheikholeslami Vatani et al. 2012 [60]

Iran

Parallel, R, PC, SB

Young men with overweight

♂

9

10

6

23 ± 2

21 ± 1

26.5 ± 1.2

27.2 ± 1.6

Whey

90

Starch

Ahmadi Kani Golzar et al. 2012 [61]

Iran

Parallel, R, PC, SB

Young men with overweight

♂

10

10

6

22.7 ± 2.3

21.20 ± 1.03

26.5 ± 1.1

27.1 ± 1.5

Whey

30

Starch solution

Björkman et al. 2012 [62]

Finland

Parallel, R, CO

Nursing home residents

♂/♀

46

51

24

84.1 ± 7.6

83 ± 8.7

24.8 ± 4.3

24 ± 5.5

Whey

20

Regular juice

Rambousková et al. 2014 [63]

Czech Republic

Parallel, R, CO

Elderly individuals

♂/♀

23

24

8

84.2 ± 9.7

85.3 ± 9.2

20.3 ± 2.9

20.4 ± 2.8

Milk

18.2

Non-intervention

Piccolo et al. 2015 [64]

USA

Parallel, R, CO, DB

Women with obesity

♀

16

11

8

41 ± 9.8

41 ± 9.8

36.9 ± 3.1

36 ± 4.8

Whey

20

Gelatin

Tahavorgar et al. 2015 [65]

Iran

Parallel, R,CO, DB

Men with overweight and obesity

♂

26

19

12

39.4 ± 6.9

38.8 ± 8.8

32.1 ± 3.2

32.1 ± 2.7

Whey

65

Soy protein

Fekete et al. 2016 (a) [87]

UK

Crossover, R, CO, DB

Healthy individuals with mildly elevated BP

♂/♀

38

38

8

52.9 ± 12.9

52.9 ± 12.9

27.1 ± 4.9

27.1 ± 4.9

Whey

56

Maltodextrin

Fekete et al. 2016 (b) [87]

UK

Crossover, R, CO, DB

Healthy individuals with mildly elevated BP

♂/♀

38

38

8

52.9 ± 12.9

52.9 ± 12.9

27.1 ± 4.9

27.1 ± 4.9

Casein

56

Maltodextrin

Arciero et al. 2016 [66]

USA

Parallel, R, CO

Individuals with overweight

♂/♀

12

9

16

48 ± 12

52 ± 4

32 ± 7

33 ± 3

Whey

25

Food protein

Maltais et al. 2016 [67]

Canada

Parallel, R,CO, DB

Sarcopenic elderly men

♂

8

8

16

68 ± 5.6

64 ± 4.8

25.8 ± 3

27 ± 2.7

Milk

13.53

Soy milk

Stojkovic et al. 2017 [68]

USA

Parallel, R, PC, DB

Postmenopausal women

♀

38

46

72

68.9 ± 5.5

69.3 ± 6.1

26 ± 3.7

25.8 ± 4.1

Whey

20

Maltodextrin

Lopes Gomes et al. 2017 [69]

Brazil

Parallel, R, CO

Patients after bariatric surgery (> 24 months)

♀

15

15

16

41 ± 10

49 ± 10

36 ± 6

35 ± 4

Whey

46

Non-intervention

Hassan et al. 2017 [70]

Israel

Parallel, R, CO

Hypoalbuminemia peritoneal dialysis patients

♂/♀

18

18

12

59.7 ± 11.5

58.1 ± 12.3

28.7 ± 3.3

28.6 ± 3.5

Whey

26.3

 Protein without whey

Ottestad et al. 2017 [71]

Norway

Parallel, R, PC, DB

Older adults

♂/♀

17

19

12

76.8 ± 6.2

77.1 ± 4.7

27.6 ± 4.2

25.9 ± 4.9

Milk

40

Carbohydrate

Lockwood et al. 2017 (a) [72]

USA

Parallel, R, PC, DB

Healthy college-aged males

♂

15

15

8

21.8 ± 3.5

20.9 ± 1.5

NR

NR

High-lactoferrin-Whey

60

Carbohydrate

Lockwood et al. 2017 (b) [72]

USA

Parallel, R, PC, DB

Healthy college-aged males

♂

13

15

8

21.3 ± 2.5

20.9 ± 1.5

NR

NR

Whey

60

Carbohydrate

Lockwood et al. 2017 (c) [72]

USA

Parallel, R, PC, DB

Healthy college-aged males

♂

13

15

8

21.5 ± 3.2

20.9 ± 1.5

NR

NR

Extensively hydrolyzed whey

60

Carbohydrate

Gaffney et al. 2018 [73]

New Zealand

Parallel, R, PC, DB

Patients with T2DM

♂

12

12

10

53.5 ± 5.6

57.8 ± 5.2

29.6 ± 2.7

30.1 ± 4.9

Whey

28.5

Carbohydrate

Sharp et al. 2018 [74]

USA

Parallel, R, CO, DB

Healthy participants

♂/♀

10

10

8

19 ± 2

21 ± 2

NR

NR

Whey

46

Maltodextrin

Larsen et al. 2018 [75]

Denmark

Parallel, R, CO, SB

Individuals with overweight and obesity

♂/♀

14

15

4

41

41

34.9 ± 5.4

35.1 ± 5.8

Whey

41

Maltodextrin

Derosa et al. 2019 [76]

Italy

Parallel, R, PC, DB

Patients with T2DM

♂/♀

59

58

12

59.7 ± 9.1

58.6 ± 8.8

22.7 ± 2.1

22.7 ± 2.1

Whey

9.25

Placebo

(5 g caseins)

Nabuco et al. 2019 [77]

Brazil

Parallel, R, PC, DB

Older women with sarcopenic obesity

♀

13

13

12

68 ± 4.2

70.1 ± 3.9

26.4 ± 3

27.4 ± 3

Whey

35

Maltodextrin

Giglio et al. 2019 [78]

Brazil

Parallel, R, PC, DB

Women with overweight

♀

17

20

8

37.8 ± 12

43 ± 8

31.1 ± 4

30.9 ± 3.6

Whey

40

Collagen

Yang et al. 2019 (a) [79]

China

Parallel, R, CO

Individuals with pre or mild HTN, and normal weight

♂/♀

12

12

12

42.37 ± 11.6

43.8 ± 11.7

24.1 ± 3.1

24.3 ± 2.3

Whey

30

Maltodextrin

Yang et al. 2019 (b) [79]

China

Parallel, R, CO

Individuals with pre or mild HTN, overweight, and obesity

♂/♀

15

15

12

42.37 ± 11.6

43.8 ± 11.7

24.1 ± 3.1

24.3 ± 2.3

Whey

30

Maltodextrin

Hudson et al. 2020 [80]

USA

Parallel, R, PC, DB

Individuals with overweight and obesity

♂/♀

21

23

16

53 ± 9.2

52 ± 4.8

31 ± 3.2

30.3 ± 3.4

Milk

64

Maltodextrin

Haidari et al. 2020 [81]

Iran

Parallel, R, CO

Pre-menopausal women with obesity on a weight-loss diet

♀

30

30

8

31 ± 6.2

32.2 ± 5.1

33.5 ± 3.17

33.3 ± 2.6

Whey

30

Isocaloric weight-loss diet

Lefferts et al. 2020 [82]

USA

Parallel, R, CO, DB

Older adults

♂/♀

53

46

12

69 ± 7

67 ± 6

27.9 ± 5.6

27 ± 3.9

Whey

50

Carbohydrate

Fuglsang-Nielsen et al. 2021 (a) [83]

Denmark

Parallel, R, CO, DB

Individuals with abdominal obesity

♂/♀

15

16

12

64

64

NR

NR

Whey

 + low fiber

60

Maltodextrin + low fiber

Fuglsang-Nielsen et al. 2021 (b) [83]

Denmark

Parallel, R, CO, DB

Individuals with abdominal obesity

♂/♀

17

17

12

64

64

NR

NR

Whey

 + high fiber

60

Maltodextrin + high fiber

Pettersson et al. 2021 [84]

Sweden

Parallel, R, PC.DB

Untrained men with overweight or obesity

♂

10

10

6

28.2 ± 5.5

27.9 ± 5

29.8 ± 2.3

30.4 ± 1.8

Milk

10

Carbohydrate

Teixeira et al. 2022 [85]

Portugal

Parallel, R, CO, DB

Futsal players

♂

20

20

8

18–35

18–35

NR

NR

Whey

25

Plant-based protein