Author, year | Design | Sample size | Sex | Country | Ageb | Baseline BMIb | Health status | Duration (week) | Whole grains in intervention groups | Refined grains in control groups | Whole grain products variety | Measured biomarkers |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ding et al. 2022 [68] | parallel | I: 45; C: 54 | F:40; M:55 | China | I: 64.9 ± 4.09; C: 64.8 ± 6.47 | I: 25.7 ± 2.9; C: 25.6 ± 3.5 | T2DM | 12 | 100 g/day germinated brown rice | 100 g/day refined white rice | 1–2 | FBG, HbA1C |
Xue et al., 2021 [67] | parallel | I: 80; C: 78 | F: 126; M: 32 | China | I: 44.5 ± 12.5; C: 45.4 ± 14.0 | I: 24.3 ± 3.9; C: 24.1 ± 4.2 | healthy/overweight | 12 | 154 g/d whole grain rye crisp bread + whole grain rye puffs | 142.8 g refined wheat crisp + refined wheat puffs | 1–2 | FBG, FBI, HOMA-IR, HbA1C |
Ren et al., 2020 [66] | parallel | I1: 28; I2: 28; I3: 28; C: 28 | NA | China | 18–70 | NA | MetS | 4 | I1: 50 g Paddy rice with the husk removed + 50 g polished rice I2: 50 g Hot-air drying germinated brown rice + 50 g polished rice I3: 50 g autoclaving germinated brown rice + 50 g polished rice | 100 g polished rice | 1–2 | FBG |
Mai et al., 2020 [65] | parallel | I: 40; C: 40 | F: 64; M: 16 | Vietnam | I: 65.2 ± 3.78; C: 65.0 ± 3.85 | I: 25.9 ± 2.4; C: 25.5 ± 2.3 | MetS | 12 | 200 g cooked pregerminated brown rice | 200 g white rice | 1–2 | FBG, FBI, HOMA-IR |
Roager et al., 2019 [64] | crossover | 50 | F: 32; M: 18 | Danish | 48.6 ± 11.1 | 28.9 ± 3.6 | at risk of MetS | 8 | whole grain mix (ingredient: 179 g/day) | refined grain diet | ≥ 5 | FBG, FBI, HOMA-IR, HbA1C |
Malik et al., 2019 [22] | crossover | 112 | NA | India | 37.1 ± 9.4 | 28.1 ± 3.4 | overweight | 12 | parboiled brown rice; total whole grain: 31.1 g/day | white rice; total whole grain: 15.7 g/day | 1–2 | FBG, FBI, HOMA-IR, HbA1C |
Kuroda et al., 2019 [63] | parallel | I: 17; C: 17 | F: 15; M: 19 | Japan | I: 70.5 ± 0.9; C: 75.4 ± 1.1 | I: 24.8 ± 0.6; C: 22.5 ± 0.5 | healthy | 104 | 100 g/d ultra-high hydrostatic pressurizing brown rice | 100 g/d polished white rice | 1–2 | FBG, HbA1C |
Hoevenaars et al., 2019 [62] | parallel | I: 25; C: 25 | F: 31; M: 19 | Netherlands | I: 28.0 ± 2.1; C: 27.6 ± 2.6 | I: 47–69; C: 51–70 | overweight and obese men and postmenopausal women | 12 | whole grain wheat cereals and ready-to-eat-cereals (ingredient: 98 g/day) | refined wheat | 1–2 | FBG, FBI, HOMA-IR |
Kikuchi et al., 2018 [61] | parallel | I: 24; C: 25 | F: 17; M: 32 | Japan | I: 48.1 ± 1.6; C: 47.0 ± 1.7 | I: 27.1 ± 0.7; C: 27.7 ± 0.48 | healthy | 12 | whole grain wheat bread (ingredient: 100 g/day) | 100 g/day refined wheat bread | 1–2 | FBG, FBI |
Karl et al., 2017 [60] | parallel | I: 41; C: 40 | F: 32; M: 49 | USA | I: 55 ± 6; C: 54 ± 5 | I: 25.7 ± 3.9; C: 25.7 ± 3.2 | healthy | 6 | whole grain mix: (ingredient: 207 g/day) | refined grain-based diet; (ingredient: 0 g/day) | ≥ 5 | FBG, FBI, HOMA-IR |
Nakayama et al., 2017 [23] | crossover | 8 | F: 4; M: 12 | Japan | 64.0 ± 8.8 | 25.7 ± 5.6 | type 2 diabetes | 8 | 277 g/day cooked glutinous brown rice | 277 g/day cooked white rice | 1–2 | HbA1C |
Kristensen et al., 2017 [59] | parallel | I: 81; C: 88 | F: 169 | France | I: 36.2 ± 10.1; C: 35.3 ± 8.7 | I: 30.2 ± 1.9; C: 30.1 ± 2.0 | overweight/obese | 12 | whole grain mix: 80 g/day | Refined grain | ≥ 5 | FBG, FBI, HbA1C |
Kondo et al., 2017 [58] | parallel | I: 14; C: 14 | F: 18; M: 10 | Japan | I: 65.2 ± 8.7; C: 68.1 ± 6.8 | I: 24.2 ± 3.5; C: 25.0 ± 3.7 | type 2 diabetes | 8 | brown rice: for 10 out of 21 meals per week | white rice | 1–2 | FBG, FBI, HOMA-IR, HbA1C |
Cooper et al., 2017 [24] | parallel | I: 35; C: 10 | F: 25; M: 21 | USA | I: 26.2 ± 1.0; C: 24.6 ± 1.6 | I: 22.8 ± 0.5; C: 25.5 ± 2.1 | healthy | 6 | 6 servings/day whole grain products | refined grain | ≥ 5 | FBG |
Vetrani et al., 2016 [57] | parallel | I: 26; C: 28 | F: 24; M: 16 | Italy | I: 57.2 ± 1.9; C: 58.4 ± 1.6 | I: 32.1 ± 1.4; C: 31.5 ± 1.3 | overweight/obese, MetS | 12 | whole grain mix (ingredient: 136 g/day) | refined grain | ≥ 5 | FBG, FBI, HOMA-IR |
Kirwan et al., 2016 [56] | crossover | 33 | F: 27; M: 6 | USA | 39 ± 7 | 33.1 ± 4.3 | overweight/obese | 8 | complete whole grain mix (ingredient : 93 g/day) | refined grain mix | ≥ 5 | FBG, FBI, HOMA-IR, HbA1C |
Geng et al., 2016 [55] | parallel | I: 94; C: 97 | F: 96; M: 95 | China | I: 56.7 ± 6.8; C: 56.7 ± 6.7 | I: 25.6 ± 3.0; C: 25.9 ± 2.8 | hyperlipidemia | 12 | 150 g/day pre-germinated brown rice | equivalent staple food products | 1–2 | FBG |
Connolly et al., 2016 [54] | crossover | 30 | F: 19; M: 11 | England | 42 | 26.4 ± 5.7 | at risk of cardio-metabolic disease | 6 | 45 g/day of whole grain oat Granola | non-whole grain | 1–2 | FBG, FBI, HOMA-IR |
Ampatzoglou et al., 2016 [53] | crossover | 33 | F: 21; M: 12 | England | 48.8 ± 1.1 | 27.9 ± 0.7 | healthy | 6 | whole grain mix (ingredient: 168.4 g/day) | diet low in whole grain | ≥ 5 | FBG, FBI |
Vitaglione et al., 2015 [52] | parallel | I: 36; C: 32 | F: 45; M: 23 | Italy | I: 40 ± 2; C: 37 ± 2 | I: 30.0 ± 0.5; C: 29.5 ± 0.4 | overweight/obese | 8 | 62 g/day whole grain wheat biscuit | refined wheat products | 1–2 | FBG |
Jackson et al., 2014 [51] | parallel | I: 25; C: 25 | F: 25; M: 25 | USA | I: 46.4 ± 5.9; C: 45.8 ± 6.0 | I: 32.9 ± 3.5; C: 33.5 ± 4.0 | Overweight/obese, at risk of metS | 12 | 232 g/day whole grain products | refined grain | ≥ 5 | FBG, FBI, HOMA-IR |
Bui et al., 2014 [50] | parallel | I: 30; C: 30 | F: 60 | Vietnam | I: 56.9 ± 5.8; C: 56.6 ± 5.0 | I: 23.9 ± 3.0; C: 23.5 ± 3.2 | pre-diabetes | 16 | pre-germinated brown rice (PGBR) | white rice | 1–2 | FBG |
Wang et al., 2012 [49] | parallel | I: 29; C: 28 | F:38; M:19 | USA | I: 55 ± 9; C: 50 ± 9 | I: 26.5 ± 3.0; C: 25.0 ± 2.2 | pre-diabetes | 12 | brown rice as staple food | white rice | 1–2 | FBG, FBI, HbA1C, HOMA-IR |
Mackay et al. a, 2012 [48] | crossover | 14 | F:4; M: 10 | Canada | 53 ± 6 | 26.5 ± 2.9 | Normoglycemic/ normoinsulinemic | 6 | 162.5 g/day whole grain wheat sourdough | 168.8 g/day white bread | 1–2 | FBG |
Mackay et al. b, 2012 [48] | crossover | 13/14 | F:4; M: 10 | Canada | 57 ± 7.4 | 35.7 ± 5.65 | pre-diabetes | 6 | 162.5 g/day whole grain wheat sourdough | 168.8 g/day white bread | 1–2 | FBG |
Kristensen et al., 2012 [47] | parallel | I: 38; C: 34 | F: 72 | Denmark | I: 59.1 ± 5.6; C: 60.3 ± 5.3 | I: 30.0 ± 0.4; C: 30.4 ± 0.6 | overweight/obese | 12 | 150 g/day whole grain wheat bread/pasta/biscuits (ingredient: 105 g/day) | refined wheat | 1–2 | FBG, FBI, HOMA-IR, HbA1C |
Zhang et al., 2011 [46] | parallel | I: 101; C: 101 | F: 94; M: 108 | China | I: 49.6 ± 6.7; C: 49.8 ± 7.1 | I: 25.9 ± 3.4; C: 25.4 ± 2.5 | diabete/at risk of diabetes | 16 | 100 g/day brown rice | white rice | 1–2 | FBG, FBI, HOMA-IR, HbA1C |
Tighe et al., 2010 [45] | parallel | I1: 73; I2:70; C: 63 | F: 102; M: 104 | England | I1: 51.6 ± 0.8; I2: 52.1 ± 0.9; C: 51.8 ± 0.8 | I1: 28.0 ± 0.5; I2: 27.0 ± 0.4; C: 28.0 ± 0.5 | healthy adults | 12 | I1: 3 servings of whole wheat products: 70–80 g whole grain bread + 30–40 g whole grain cereals; I2: 1 serving of whole wheat products and 2 servings of oats products | refined grain mix | ≥ 5 | FBG, HOMA-IR |
Giacco et al., 2010 [44] | crossover | 15 | F:3 M: 12 | Italy | 54.5 ± 7.6 | 27.4 ± 3.0 | healthy | 3 | whole grain wheat products | refined wheat products | ≥ 5 | FBG, FBI, HOMA-IR |
Brownlee et al., 2010 [43] | parallel | I1: 85; I2: 81; C: 100 | F: 133; M: 133 | England | I1: 45.9 ± 10.1; I2: 45.7 ± 9.9; C: 45.6 ± 10 | I1: 30.0 ± 3.7; I2: 30.3 ± 4.5; C: 30.0 ± 4.0 | adults with BMI > 25 | 16 | I1: 60 g/day whole grain products for 16 weeks; I2: 60 g/day whole grain products for 8 weeks followed by 120 g/day whole grain products for 8 weeks | consuming < 30 g/day whole grain products | ≥ 5 | FBG, FBI |
Kim et al., 2008 [42] | parallel | I: 23; C: 24 | F: 47 | Korea | 20–35 | I: 27.57 ± 0.43; C: 27.27 ± 0.59 | overweight women | 6 | mixture of brown rice and black rice 3 meals per day | white rice | 1–2 | FBG, FBI |
Katcher et al., 2008 [41] | parallel | I: 24; C: 23 | F: 23; M: 24 | USA | I: 45.4 ± 8; C: 46.6 ± 9.7 | I: 35.5 ± 4.1; C: 36.1 ± 4.9 | obese adults with MetS | 12 | 5 servings/day; obtain all of their grain servings from whole grains | <0.2 servings/day; avoid whole grain products | ≥ 5 | FBG, FBI |
Andersson et al., 2007 [40] | crossover | 30 | F: 22; M: 8 | Sweden | 59 ± 5 | 28.3 ± 2.0 | moderately overweight adults and/or with abdominal obesity | 6 | whole grain products (ingredient: 112 g/day) | refined grain | ≥ 5 | FBG, FBI |
McIntosh et al., 2003 [39] | crossover | 28 | M: 28 | Australia | 40–65 | 30 ± 0.9 | overweight men | 4 | products containing whole grain rye flour and wheat flour (ingredient: 88 g) | low-fiber refined cereal products | ≥ 5 | FBG, FBI |
Li et al., 2003 [38] | crossover | 10 | F: 10 | Japan | 20.4 ± 1.3 | 19.2 ± 2.0 | healthy | 4 | 70% rice and 30% barley mixture | 100% rice | 1–2 | FBG, HbA1C |
Pins et al., 2002 [37] | parallel | I: 45; C: 43 | F: 43; M: 45 | USA | I: 48.7 ± 16.9; C: 46.4 ± 15.3 | I: 31.2 ± 5.1; C: 30.6 ± 4.7 | Men and women being treated for hypertension | 12 | 60 g Quaker oatmeal + 77 g Quaker oat squares | 65 g Malt-O-Meal hot wheat cereal + 81 g Kellogg’s crispix | 1–2 | FBG |
Pereira et al., 2002 [36] | crossover | 11 | F:6; M:5 | USA | 41.6 ± 2.67 | 30.2 ± 1.01 | overweight and obese hyperinsulinemic adults. | 6 | whole grain mix (ingredient: 356 g/day) | refined grain mix | ≥ 5 | FBG, FBI, HOMA-IR |
Hawrysh et al., 1998 [35] | crossover | 11 | M: 11 | Canada | 51 ± 6.5 | 27.4 ± 0.1 | type 2 diabetes patients | 12 | 83 g/day waxy hulless barley bread | white bread | 1–2 | FBG, FBI, HbA1C |