Table 1 Clinical characteristics of the study participants

Eating midpoint (hours)

8.00-22.50

< 13.38

13.38–14.13

14.14-15.00

> 15.00

n

2194

501

560

568

565

Age (years)

60.83 ± 13.15

61.36 ± 12.22

62.43 ± 12.83

60.17 ± 13.33

59.45 ± 13.91

0.001

Male, n (%)

1213(55.3)

319(63.7)

315(56.2)

284(50.0)

295(52.2)

< 0.001

BMI (kg/m²)

32.99 ± 7.74

32.52 ± 7.21

32.40 ± 7.33

32.81 ± 7.78

34.16 ± 8.40

< 0.001

Ethnicity, n (%)

< 0.001

Non-Hispanic White

731(33.3)

192(38.3)

204(36.4)

177(31.2)

158(28.0)

Non-Hispanic Black

552(25.2)

99(19.8)

117(20.9)

158(27.8)

178(31.5)

Mexican American

389(17.7)

103(20.6)

111(19.8)

94(16.5)

81(14.3)

Other Race

522(23.8)

107(21.4)

128(22.9)

139(24.5)

148(26.2)

Household income

2.39 ± 1.54

2.45 ± 1.51

2.50 ± 1.61

2.36 ± 1.53

2.27 ± 1.52

0.106

Smoking status, n (%)

1112(50.7)

232(46.3)

276(49.3)

313(55.1)

291(51.5)

0.037

Drinking status, n (%)

974(44.4)

239(47.8)

251(44.8)

240(42.2)

244(43.2)

0.309

HbA1c (%)

7.66 ± 1.78

7.58 ± 1.74

7.56 ± 1.69

7.76 ± 1.88

7.73 ± 1.80

0.141

eGFR (ml/min/1.73m²)

78.95 ± 30.04

78.60 ± 29.34

79.56 ± 30.62

79.68 ± 30.44

77.94 ± 29.71

0.735

UACR (mg/g)

13.73(7.36–46.70)

12.82(7.27–34.40)

15.51(7.79–68.37)

12.50(7.03–41.31)

15.21(7.46–45.82)

0.023

DKD, n (%)

1019(46.4)

215(42.9)

278(49.6)

243(42.8)

283(50.1)

0.037

The first meal time (hours)

8.30 ± 1.98

6.51 ± 1.19

7.65 ± 1.17

8.46 ± 1.06

10.39 ± 1.95

< 0.001

The last meal time (hours)

20.09 ± 1.53

18.62 ± 1.40

19.77 ± 1.17

20.51 ± 1.04

21.28 ± 1.15

< 0.001

Eating duration (hours)

11.78 ± 2.35

12.11 ± 2.22

12.12 ± 2.30

12.05 ± 2.04

10.89 ± 2.58

< 0.001

Energy intake (kcal)

1966.72 ± 751.71

1994.51 ± 823.78

1938.56 ± 735.42

1988.79 ± 723.71

1947.79 ± 728.46

0.509