| Frequency of breakfast consumption (pre-to early pregnancy) | P-value1 | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Everyday (n = 5854) | 5–6 times/week (n = 657) | 3–4 times/week (n = 430) | 0–2 times/week (n = 550) | ||||||
n (%) or mean (standard deviation) | |||||||||
Mother | |||||||||
 Age at delivery (years) | |||||||||
   < 25 | 247 | (4.2) | 52 | (7.9) | 41 | (9.5) | 68 | (12.4) | < 0.001 |
   25–29 | 1393 | (23.8) | 216 | (32.9) | 145 | (33.7) | 191 | (34.7) | |
   30–34 | 2347 | (40.1) | 244 | (37.1) | 158 | (36.7) | 176 | (32.0) | |
   ≥ 35 | 1867 | (31.9) | 145 | ()22.1 | 86 | (20.0) | 115 | (20.9) | |
 Pre-pregnancy body mass index (kg/m2) | |||||||||
   < 18.5 | 785 | (13.4) | 88 | (13.4) | 66 | (15.4) | 89 | (16.2) | < 0.001 |
   18.5–24.9 | 4475 | (76.4) | 496 | (75.5) | 306 | (71.2) | 373 | (67.8) | |
   ≥ 25.0 | 594 | (10.2) | 73 | (11.1) | 58 | (13.4) | 88 | (16.0) | |
 Educational level | |||||||||
   Junior high school or high school | 1635 | (27.9) | 205 | (31.2) | 162 | (37.7) | 219 | (39.8) | < 0.001 |
   Technical college or junior college | 2310 | (39.5) | 251 | (38.2) | 172 | (40.0) | 200 | (36.4) | |
   University or graduate school | 1909 | (32.6) | 201 | (30.6) | 96 | (22.3) | 131 | (23.8) | |
 Smoking status in early pregnancy | |||||||||
   Never | 4024 | (68.7) | 402 | (61.2) | 234 | (54.4) | 265 | (48.2) | < 0.001 |
   Quit before pregnancy | 1355 | (23.2) | 164 | (25.0) | 103 | (24.0) | 126 | (22.9) | |
   Quit after pregnancy | 432 | (7.4) | 77 | (11.8) | 77 | (17.9) | 125 | (22.7) | |
   Smoked during early pregnancy | 43 | (0.7) | 14 | (2.1) | 16 | (3.7) | 34 | (6.2) | |
 Alcohol consumption in early pregnancy | |||||||||
   Never | 2752 | (47.0) | 295 | (44.9) | 182 | (42.3) | 223 | (40.6) | 0.009 |
   Former | 1899 | (32.4) | 231 | (35.2) | 155 | (36.1) | 220 | (40.0) | |
   Current | 1203 | (20.6) | 131 | (19.9) | 93 | (21.6) | 107 | (19.5) | |
 Parity | |||||||||
   ≥ 1 | 3485 | (59.5) | 214 | (32.5) | 142 | (33.0) | 157 | (28.6) | < 0.001 |
   0 | 2369 | (40.5) | 443 | (67.5) | 288 | (67.0) | 393 | (71.4) | |
 Employment status in early pregnancy | |||||||||
   Employed | 3478 | (59.4) | 417 | (63.5) | 264 | (61.4) | 341 | (62.0) | 0.07 |
   Not employed | 2220 | (37.9) | 215 | (32.7) | 151 | (35.1) | 191 | (34.7) | |
   Other | 156 | (2.7) | 25 | (3.8) | 15 | (3.5) | 18 | (3.3) | |
   With folic acid supplementation | 3484 | (59.5) | 421 | (64.1) | 271 | (63.0) | 348 | (63.3) | 0.03 |
 Morning sickness | |||||||||
   Never | 811 | (13.9) | 104 | (15.8) | 67 | (15.6) | 89 | (16.2) | 0.001 |
   Nausea only | 2769 | (47.3) | 270 | (41.1) | 197 | (45.8) | 211 | (38.4) | |
   Vomiting, able to eat | 1698 | (29.0) | 219 | (33.3) | 119 | (27.7) | 180 | (32.7) | |
   Vomiting, unable to eat | 576 | (9.8) | 64 | (9.7) | 47 | (10.9) | 70 | (12.7) | |
   Insomnia | 2072 | (35.4) | 266 | (40.5) | 185 | (43.0) | 246 | (44.8) | < 0.001 |
   With psychological distress | 1842 | (31.5) | 232 | (35.3) | 180 | (41.9) | 248 | (45.1) | < 0.001 |
   With postnatal bonding disorder | 823 | (14.1) | 115 | (17.5) | 86 | (20.0) | 108 | (19.6) | < 0.001 |
   Energy intake (kcal/day) | 1662 | ± 505.1 | 1574 | ± 489.9 | 1553 | ± 524.7 | 1457.8 | ± 543.3 | < 0.001 |
   Cereal intake (g/day) | 426.5 | ± 108.9 | 415.8 | ± 109.5 | 390.8 | ± 103.2 | 377.2 | ± 110.0 | < 0.001 |
   Meat intake (g/day) | 68.7 | ± 38.1 | 76.9 | ± 37.9 | 79.2 | ± 37.5 | 80.0 | ± 38.2 | < 0.001 |
   Fish intake (g/day) | 37.6 | ± 28.8 | 35.5 | ± 24.1 | 38.2 | ± 29.0 | 37.2 | ± 31.5 | 0.32 |
   Bean intake (g/day) | 62.6 | ± 61.1 | 58.5 | ± 56.0 | 53.4 | ± 50.4 | 59.7 | ± 58.1 | 0.007 |
   Seaweed intake (g/day) | 6.5 | ± 5.8 | 5.6 | ± 4.5 | 5.8 | ± 4.9 | 5.3 | ± 4.9 | < 0.001 |
   Vegetable intake (g/day) | 161.6 | ± 111.5 | 139.5 | ± 79.0 | 145.6 | ± 76.0 | 140.0 | ± 95.6 | < 0.001 |
   Fruit intake (g/day) | 148.2 | ± 128.0 | 141.7 | ± 117.1 | 156.6 | ± 136.3 | 155.4 | ± 143.2 | 0.16 |
Child | |||||||||
 Birth- weight (g) | 3064 | ± 369.8 | 3069 | ± 369.3 | 3036 | ± 378.5 | 3027 | ± 341.4 | 0.06 |
 Boy | 2963 | (50.6) | 342 | (52.1) | 212 | (49.3) | 298 | (54.2) | 0.34 |
 Breastfeeding at 1 year | 3602 | (61.5) | 393 | (59.8) | 253 | (58.8) | 310 | (56.4) | 0.08 |
 Developmental delays at 2 years of age | 835 | (14.3) | 94 | (14.3) | 71 | (16.5) | 105 | (19.1) | 0.01 |
 Developmental delays at 3.5 years of age | 768 | (13.1) | 98 | (14.9) | 60 | (14.0) | 81 | (14.7) | 0.45 |