Table 3 Comparison of metabolic and hormonal parameters between the thylakoid group and the placebo group at baseline and after the intervention

FBG (mg/dl)

Baseline

93.09 (5.39)

96.56 (7.44)

− 3.47 (− 7.46, 0.52), 0.086**

End

92.66 (4.70)

96.09 (6.10)

− 0.28 (− 3.35, 2.79), 0.854***

MD (95% CI), P*

−0.43 (−1.05, 0.19), 0.165

−0.48 (−1.36, 0.40), 0.273

Insulin (μU/mL)

Baseline

17.97 (2.45)

18.63 (2.33)

− 0.65 (− 2.11, 0.80), 0.370**

End

12.57 (2.11)

17.43 (2.25)

−3.73 (− 7.06,- 0.40), 0.029***

MD (95% CI), P*

− 5.40 (− 6.25, − 4.55), < 0.001

−1.19 (− 1.56, − 0.83),< 0.001

HOMA-IR

Baseline

4.14 (0.69)

4.43 (0.60)

−0.29 (− 0.68, 0.10), 0.143**

End

2.87 (0.49)

4.13 (0.53)

−1.06 (− 1.88,-0.25), 0.011***

MD (95% CI), P*

−1.27 (− 1.48, − 1.05), < 0.001

−0.31 (− 0.42, − 0.19),< 0.001

HOMA-B

Baseline

219.68 (40.36)

210.36 (55.60)

9.32 (−20.48, 39.13),0.531**

End

156.06 (37.50)

197.36 (49.16)

− 40.82 (− 78.48, −3.16), 0.034***

MD (95% CI), P*

−63.62 (− 73.88, − 53.37), < 0.001

−13.00 (− 17.53, − 8.46), < 0.001

QUICKI

Baseline

End

MD (95% CI), P*

0.31 (0.007)

0.33 (0.008)

0.02 (0.014, 0.02), < 0.001

0.31 (0.006)

0.31 (0.005)

0.003(0.002, 0.004), < 0.001

0.003 (−0.002, 0.007), 0.121**

0.012 (0.002, 0.022), 0.022***

NEFA (mmol/L)

Baseline

End

MD (95% CI), P*

0.89 (0.06)

0.86 (0.06)

−0.03 (− 0.03, − 0.02), < 0.001

0.93 (0.07)

0.90 (0.06)

− 0.02 (− 0.03, − 0.01), < 0.001

−0.03 (− 0.07, 0.005), 0.084**

0.008 (− 0.033, 0.048), 0.707***

LH (mIu/ml)

Baseline

7.99 (0.42)

7.78(0.38)

0.21 (−0.03, 0.45), 0.089**

End

7.95 (0.42)

7.74 (0.36)

−0.13 (− 0.315, 0.059), 0.173***

MD (95% CI), P*

−0.04 (− 0.07, − 0.006),0.022

−0.04 (− 0.08, − 0.006), 0.025

FSH (mIu/ml)

Baseline

4.49 (0.05)

4.53 (0.48)

−0.05 (− 0.35, 0.25), 0.751**

End

4.47 (0.05)

4.52 (0.47)

0.024 (−0.08, 0.13), 0.652***

MD (95% CI), P*

−0.01 (− 0.03, 0.004), 0.124

− 0.01 (− 0.03, 0.005), 0.146

DHEA-S (μg/dl)

Baseline

246.09 (9.58)

242.56 (7.42)

3.53 (−1.66, 8.72), 0.177**

End

241.66 (5.65)

241.91 (5.88)

2.87(−10.72, 16.47), 0.671***

MD (95% CI), P*

−4.43(−8.64, −0.22),0.040

−0.65(−4.52, 3.21),0.730

Total testosterone (ng/ml)

Baseline

0.65 (0.06)

0.69 (0.08)

−0.03 (− 0.08, 0.01), 0.121**

End

0.59 (0.03)

0.66 (0.07)

−0.06 (− 0.12,- 0.004), 0.036***

MD (95% CI), P*

−0.06 (− 0.08,-0.04), < 0.001

−0.03 (− 0.03, − 0.02), < 0.001

SHBG (nmol/L)

Baseline

25.83 (1.12)

25.76 (1.02)

0.72 (−0.58, 0.72), 0.824**

End

26.28 (1.13)

25.97 (0.79)

−0.52 (−2.02, 0.97), 0.483***

MD (95% CI), P*

0.45 (0.06, 0.84), 0.026

0.22 (−0.01, 0.44), 0.057

FAI

Baseline

8.82 (0.98)

9.28 (1.07)

−.46 (−1.09, 0.16), 0.143**

End

7.87 (0.48)

8.83 (0.94)

−0.67 (−1.5, 0.19), 0.121***

MD (95% CI), P*

−0.95 (−1.25, − 0.66), < 0.001

−0.45 (− 0.58, − 0.32), < 0.001